The Kena Upanishad is one of the Principal (Mukhya) Upanishads, revered for its unique and direct inquiry into the ultimate source of knowledge and power. Its name, “Kena,” literally means “By Whom?” or “By What?” – reflecting its very first word and the fundamental question it poses: “By whom is the mind directed? By whom is the breath commanded?”

It is associated with the Samaveda, specifically with the Talavakara Brahmana, from which it derives its alternate name, Talavakara Upanishad.

Structure and Style: The Kena Upanishad is relatively short, divided into four sections (khandas):

• Sections 1 & 2: Primarily poetic and aphoristic, focusing on the unknowability of Brahman through the senses or mind.
• Section 3 & 4: Narrative, presenting a parable or allegory to illustrate the supreme power of Brahman, even over the gods.

Central Question and Theme: The Unperceived Perceiver

The core of the Kena Upanishad is an investigation into the true “power behind the powers.” It asks:

• What impels the mind to think?
• What directs life’s breath?
• What causes the eye to see, the ear to hear, and the tongue to speak?

The answer presented is that these functions are not self-sufficient. There is a greater, transcendent power that enables them all – that power is Brahman.

Core Teachings:

1. Brahman as the Source of All Faculties (Sections 1 & 2):
   • The Upanishad asserts that Brahman is the “Ear of the ear,” the “Mind of the mind,” the “Speech of the speech,” the “Life of life,” and the “Eye of the eye.”
   • This means Brahman is not something perceived by the senses or conceived by the mind; rather, it is the fundamental reality that enables sensing and conceiving. It is the subject, not the object.
   • The Paradox of Knowing Brahman: A central paradox is highlighted: “That which cannot be expressed by speech, but by which speech is expressed – know that alone as Brahman, and not what people here worship.” (Kena 1.5). This idea is repeated for mind, eye, and ear. The Upanishad implies that if one thinks they know Brahman, they do not truly know it, for Brahman transcends all conceptual knowledge. It is known to those who do not claim to know it fully, and unknown to those who claim to know it.
2. The Allegory of the Gods and the Yaksha (Sections 3 & 4):
   • This famous parable illustrates Brahman’s supreme power and how the gods (representing natural forces or individual faculties) derive their power solely from Brahman, often without realizing it.
   • The Story: Brahman appears as a mysterious Yaksha (spirit/being) to the victorious gods. Agni (Fire God) is challenged to burn a blade of grass but fails. Vayu (Wind God) is challenged to blow it away but fails. Finally, Indra (King of Gods) approaches, but the Yaksha vanishes.
   • Usha Haimavati: A goddess, Usha Haimavati (knowledge personified), then appears and reveals to Indra that the Yaksha was indeed Brahman, and that the gods’ victory was actually Brahman’s victory.
   • Meaning: This allegory teaches that all perceived power, glory, and ability (even among divine beings) ultimately emanates from and depends upon Brahman. Without Brahman, the senses, mind, and even the natural forces (gods) are powerless. It also implies that true knowledge (Usha Haimavati) is required to recognize Brahman.
3. The Nature of Spiritual Knowledge:
   • The Kena Upanishad emphasizes that Brahman is not an object to be known empirically, but the very subject that knows. It is known through intuition and realization, not intellectual apprehension alone.
   • The ultimate goal is to realize this Brahman as one’s own Atman, the Self.

Significance and Influence:

• Foundation for Advaita Vedanta: The Kena Upanishad is a cornerstone for Adi Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta philosophy, which strongly emphasizes the transcendence of Brahman and its unknowability by conventional means, while simultaneously asserting its identity with the Atman.
• Inquiry into Consciousness: It is vital for understanding the ancient Indian approach to consciousness, questioning the very source of our cognitive and sensory faculties.
• Humility in Knowledge: It instills a sense of humility, reminding that the ultimate reality cannot be fully grasped by the finite mind.
• Relevance to Yoga and Meditation: Its insights guide yogic and meditative practices, directing the practitioner to seek the “Knower” behind all knowing, the “Seer” behind all seeing.

The Kena Upanishad stands out for its unique blend of direct philosophical inquiry and compelling allegorical narrative, all aimed at pointing towards the ineffable yet all-enabling nature of Brahman.

What is Kena Upanishad?

The Kena Upanishad (Sanskrit: केनोपनिषद्, Kenopaniṣad), also known as the Talavakara Upanishad, is one of the most significant of the 13 Principal (Mukhya) Upanishads. It is embedded within the Talavakara Brahmana of the Samaveda.

Its name, “Kena,” is derived from its very first word, which means “By Whom?” or “By What?”. This initial question sets the stage for the entire Upanishad’s profound inquiry into the ultimate source of all mental, sensory, and vital functions.

Core Questions and Themes:

The Kena Upanishad begins with fundamental questions about the nature of our cognitive and perceptive abilities:

• “By whom willed and directed does the mind light on its subjects?”
• “By whom is the chief vital breath (Prana) commanded?”
• “By whose behest do men utter speech?”
• “What intelligence indeed directs the eyes and the ears?”

Key Teachings:

1. Brahman as the Unseen Seer, Unheard Hearer, etc.: The Upanishad asserts that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is the true power behind all our faculties. It states that Brahman is the:
   • “Ear of the ear” (that which enables hearing)
   • “Mind of the mind” (that which enables thinking)
   • “Speech of the speech” (that which enables speaking)
   • “Life of life” (that which enables breathing and living)
   • “Eye of the eye” (that which enables seeing) This means Brahman is not an object that can be perceived by the senses or conceived by the mind. Rather, it is the fundamental subject, the very ground of consciousness, that enables all perception and cognition.
2. The Paradox of Knowing Brahman: A central teaching is the paradoxical nature of knowing Brahman. The Upanishad states:
   • “It is unknown to those who know it well, and well known to those who know it not.” (Kena 2.3)
   • This implies that Brahman cannot be known through conventional intellectual understanding or empirical observation, as it transcends all categories of finite thought. If one claims to fully comprehend Brahman, they only grasp a limited aspect. True knowledge of Brahman is a direct, intuitive realization that goes beyond the duality of knower and known.
3. The Allegory of the Gods and the Yaksha (Agnī, Vāyu, Indra): The latter part of the Upanishad uses a famous allegory to illustrate Brahman’s supreme power and how even the mighty gods (representing various cosmic forces or individual faculties) derive their power from Brahman.
   • Brahman appears as a mysterious Yaksha (spirit/being) to the victorious gods, challenging their pride.
   • Agni (Fire God) fails to burn a simple blade of grass.
   • Vayu (Wind God) fails to blow it away.
   • Finally, Indra (King of Gods) approaches, but the Yaksha vanishes.
   • Usha Haimavati (Knowledge personified) then appears to Indra and reveals that the Yaksha was indeed Brahman, and that the gods’ strength was merely a reflection of Brahman’s power.
   • Meaning: This story teaches humility and the profound truth that all power, whether physical, mental, or divine, ultimately originates from and depends on Brahman. Without Brahman, nothing can truly function. It also highlights the role of true knowledge (Usha Haimavati) in recognizing this ultimate reality.
4. Brahman as “Tadvana” (The Object of Affection): The Upanishad concludes by suggesting that Brahman should be meditated upon as Tadvana, meaning “the darling of all” or “the adorable one.” This introduces an element of devotion, implying that while Brahman is beyond intellectual grasp, it can be approached with reverence and love.

Significance and Influence:

• Cornerstone of Advaita Vedanta: The Kena Upanishad is a crucial text for Adi Shankara’s Advaita (non-dual) philosophy, reinforcing the idea of Brahman as attributeless (Nirguna) and transcendent, yet identical with the individual Atman.
• Inquiry into Consciousness: It is vital for any deep study of consciousness, as it pushes the inquiry beyond the observable mind and senses to their ultimate source.
• Philosophical Depth: Its highly analytical and metaphysical approach distinguishes it, guiding the mind from the gross to the subtle, from effect to cause.
• Relevance to Spiritual Practice: The Kena Upanishad guides seekers to turn inward, seeking the ultimate subject that witnesses all experience, rather than getting caught up in the objects of the world.

In essence, the Kena Upanishad is a profound philosophical treatise that compels the seeker to ask “By Whom?” and discover that the true answer lies in realizing Brahman as the ultimate, ineffable source and sustainer of all existence and consciousness.

Who is require Kena Upanishad?

Courtesy: GyanSanatan ज्ञान सनातन

The Kena Upanishad, with its unique inquiry into the ultimate source of all perception, thought, and existence, is primarily “required” by individuals and institutions engaged in deep philosophical, spiritual, and academic pursuits. Its insights are less about practical, everyday tasks and more about fundamental understanding and the nature of reality itself.

Given the context of Nala Sopara, Maharashtra, India, here are the key groups who would require the Kena Upanishad:

1. Students and Scholars of Indian Philosophy and Sanskrit:
   • Academics (Indologists, Philosophers, Religious Studies Scholars): Universities in Maharashtra (like the University of Mumbai, Savitribai Phule Pune University) and globally, require the Kena Upanishad as a core text for courses on Upanishadic philosophy, Vedanta (especially Advaita), epistemology (theory of knowledge in Indian thought), and consciousness studies. Its unique structure and the famous Yaksha story make it a frequent subject of analysis.
   • Traditional Vedantic Scholars (Pandits) and Students: In gurukuls and pathashalas across India, including traditional learning centers in Maharashtra, the Kena Upanishad is a fundamental text. Its subtle arguments about Brahman being beyond conceptual knowledge are crucial for understanding the Vedantic approach to ultimate reality.
2. Spiritual Seekers and Practitioners of Yoga & Meditation:
   • Gurus and Spiritual Teachers: Leaders of spiritual organizations, ashrams (like those of Chinmaya Mission or Ramakrishna Mission, which have a strong presence in Maharashtra), and advanced yoga/meditation schools use the Kena Upanishad to guide their disciples. Its focus on the “unseen Seer” helps practitioners direct their introspection beyond the mind and senses towards the true Self.
   • Individuals on an Advanced Spiritual Path: Those seriously pursuing self-realization or deeper understanding of consciousness find the Kena Upanishad indispensable. It helps them discern the ultimate Subject (Atman/Brahman) from the objects of experience.
3. Philosophers of Mind and Consciousness Researchers:
   • Modern thinkers exploring the “hard problem of consciousness” (how physical processes give rise to subjective experience) often turn to ancient philosophical traditions for alternative frameworks. The Kena Upanishad’s direct inquiry into the “mind of the mind” and the source of perception makes it highly relevant for comparative studies in consciousness research. Scholars in fields like cognitive science or transpersonal psychology may require it for its unique insights.
4. Theologians and Comparative Religion Scholars:
   • For those studying Hinduism, mysticism, or comparative theology, the Kena Upanishad offers profound insights into the nature of the Divine as ineffable, transcendent, yet intimately connected to all faculties. It is required for understanding the nuanced ways different traditions approach the ultimate reality.
5. Ethical Leaders and Humility in Power:
   • The allegory of the gods and the Yaksha (Brahman humbling Agni, Vayu, and Indra) serves as a powerful lesson in humility and the understanding that all power and success ultimately derive from a higher source. While not a direct management textbook, leaders seeking to integrate ethical principles and a sense of humility into their approach might require this story’s moral for self-reflection.

In summary, the Kena Upanishad is “required” by anyone embarking on a serious intellectual or spiritual journey to understand the fundamental nature of reality, consciousness, and the ultimate source of all existence. Its profound questions and the subtle answers it provides make it an essential text for those who dare to inquire “By Whom?” is all this manifest.

When is require Kena Upanishad?

The Kena Upanishad is “required” at various junctures, depending on the individual’s purpose – whether it’s for formal education, spiritual growth, philosophical inquiry, or addressing specific challenges related to understanding consciousness and power dynamics.

Here’s a breakdown of “when” the Kena Upanishad is typically required:

1. In Traditional Vedic/Vedantic Education (Gurukuls/Pathashalas):
   • After foundational texts: As an Upanishad of the Samaveda, it is typically studied by those who have already gained a foundational understanding of the earlier parts of the Vedas and are ready to delve into deeper philosophical and metaphysical inquiry. It often comes after initial Upanishads like the Isha or Katha due to its subtle and paradoxical nature.
   • During advanced studies of Advaita Vedanta: For students specializing in Advaita Vedanta, the Kena Upanishad is crucial when they are studying the ineffability (nirguṇatva) and transcendence of Brahman, and its unique relationship with the individual faculties and the manifested world.
2. In Academic Settings (Universities & Research Institutions):
   • During courses on Indian Philosophy or Metaphysics: Students typically encounter the Kena Upanishad when they are studying the core tenets of Upanishadic thought, the nature of Brahman, epistemology (how we know what we know), and the philosophy of mind in Indian traditions. This might be at undergraduate or postgraduate levels.
   • For specialized research on Consciousness: Scholars and researchers in philosophy of mind, cognitive science, or consciousness studies require the Kena Upanishad when they are exploring non-Western perspectives on the source of consciousness, the relationship between the observer and the observed, or the limits of empirical knowledge.
   • When studying the history of Indian logic and argumentation: The unique question-and-answer format and the allegory make it a subject of study when examining ancient Indian pedagogical and argumentative styles.
3. For Personal Spiritual or Philosophical Inquiry:
   • When seeking the ultimate source of perception and thought: Individuals who have begun to question the nature of their own mind, senses, and life force will find the Kena Upanishad profoundly relevant when they are ready to look beyond superficial explanations for these functions.
   • During advanced stages of meditation or introspection: Practitioners who are seeking to go beyond object-oriented meditation and delve into the nature of the “Seer” or the “Knower” will find the Kena Upanishad’s guidance particularly useful when they are exploring these deeper states of consciousness.
   • When grappling with the limitations of intellectual knowledge: The Upanishad’s famous paradox about knowing Brahman (“unknown to those who know it well…”) becomes particularly pertinent when a seeker realizes the inadequacy of mere conceptual understanding for spiritual realization.
4. For Ethical Leadership and Self-Reflection on Power:
   • The allegory of the gods and the Yaksha is especially relevant when leaders or individuals in positions of power are reflecting on the true source of their abilities, successes, and influence. It serves as a reminder to cultivate humility and recognize that all power ultimately stems from a greater, universal source, rather than individual ego.

In essence, the Kena Upanishad is “required” when one is prepared to embark on a deep, often challenging, intellectual and spiritual journey to understand the fundamental nature of reality, the source of consciousness, and the limits of conventional knowledge. It serves as a guide for profound self-inquiry and the recognition of the ultimate power behind all phenomena.

Where is require Kena Upanishad?

The Kena Upanishad is “required” and studied in various locations globally, particularly wherever traditional Indian philosophy, Sanskrit, spiritual practices, or advanced consciousness studies are pursued.

Specifically, in the context of Nala Sopara, Maharashtra, India, and more broadly across the nation and the world, you would find the Kena Upanishad required in:

1. Traditional Vedic and Vedantic Schools (Gurukuls/Pathashalas):
   • Throughout Maharashtra (e.g., in Pune, Nashik, Mumbai, and smaller traditional towns), there are numerous Gurukuls and Pathashalas dedicated to preserving and transmitting Vedic knowledge. The Kena Upanishad is a standard part of their curriculum for students pursuing advanced studies in the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta. Institutions associated with organizations like Chinmaya Mission (which has Sandeepany Sadhanalaya in Powai, Mumbai, for Vedanta courses), Ramakrishna Mission, or various Shankara Mathas would certainly include it.
   • Students here memorize, recite, and deeply analyze the Kena Upanishad, often with traditional commentaries like those by Adi Shankara.
2. Universities and Academic Institutions:
   • Departments of Philosophy, Sanskrit, Indology, and Religious Studies: Universities across India (including Mumbai University, Savitribai Phule Pune University in Maharashtra) and internationally (in North America, Europe, etc.) offer courses where the Kena Upanishad is a core text.
   • Research Centers: Scholars conducting research on comparative philosophy, epistemology, consciousness studies, or ancient Indian thought would frequently refer to and analyze the Kena Upanishad in their work.
3. Spiritual Retreat Centers and Ashrams:
   • Many spiritual organizations and ashrams worldwide, and certainly within Maharashtra (which has a rich spiritual heritage), offer discourses, study camps, and residential programs on the Upanishads. The Kena Upanishad, with its direct inquiry into Brahman, is a frequent subject of study in such settings for serious seekers.
4. Yoga and Meditation Schools (Advanced Levels):
   • While not a practical “how-to” guide for asanas, the Kena Upanishad’s philosophical insights into the “Mind of the mind” and the “Ear of the ear” are crucial for deeper theoretical understanding in advanced yoga and meditation traditions, particularly those focused on Jnana Yoga or Raja Yoga. These concepts guide introspection and the understanding of the true nature of the self beyond the senses and mind.
5. Personal Libraries and Online Platforms:
   • Individuals engaged in self-study or distance learning often acquire the Kena Upanishad (in Sanskrit, with translations and commentaries) for their personal libraries. Numerous online platforms and digital archives also make the text available, ensuring its accessibility globally.

In essence, the Kena Upanishad is “required” wherever there’s a serious pursuit of ultimate knowledge, the nature of consciousness, or the philosophical underpinnings of Hindu thought, ranging from traditional scholastic environments to modern academic and spiritual inquiry.

How is require Kena Upanishad?

The Kena Upanishad is “required” in a very specific and profound manner, serving as an essential guide and tool for intellectual, spiritual, and ethical development. It’s not about a physical requirement, but about the way its wisdom is applied and utilized.

Here’s how the Kena Upanishad is “required”:

1. As a Guide for Deep Philosophical Inquiry into the Source of Consciousness:
   • It is required how to ask the most fundamental questions about existence: “By Whom?” do the mind, senses, and life force operate? It prompts the seeker to look beyond the manifest effects (thoughts, sights, sounds) to their ultimate, unmanifest cause.
   • It defines how to understand that Brahman is not an object of knowledge (like a thing to be seen or heard) but the very subject that enables all seeing, hearing, and knowing. This reframes the entire process of inquiry.
2. As a Method for Introspection and Realization of the Ultimate Subject:
   • It is required to guide how to turn the gaze inward. By repeatedly stating that Brahman is the “Mind of the mind” or “Eye of the eye,” it directs the practitioner to seek the ultimate “Seer” or “Knower” that is pure consciousness, rather than getting entangled in the objects of the senses or the content of the mind.
   • This provides a framework for how to engage in contemplative practices aimed at discerning the true Self (Atman) from the instruments of perception and cognition.
3. For Understanding the Limits of Empirical and Intellectual Knowledge:
   • The Kena Upanishad is required to illustrate how Brahman transcends all conceptual frameworks and sensory perceptions. Its famous paradox, “It is unknown to those who know it well, and well known to those who know it not,” teaches how true spiritual knowledge differs from conventional, objective knowledge.
   • This helps in understanding how intellectual pride can be a barrier to ultimate realization, fostering humility in the pursuit of truth.
4. As a Lesson in Humility and the Source of All Power:
   • The allegory of the gods and the Yaksha is required to demonstrate how even the mightiest forces (symbolized by Agni, Vayu, and Indra) derive their power from a greater, ultimate source – Brahman.
   • This teaches how to acknowledge that all individual abilities, successes, and even cosmic powers are ultimately enabled by and dependent on a supreme, universal principle, encouraging humility and discouraging arrogance.
5. As a Foundational Text for Advaita Vedanta:
   • It is required to understand how Brahman is Nirguna (without attributes) and ineffable, yet identical with Atman. Its arguments contribute to the core logical and experiential structure of non-dual philosophy.
   • Scholars and students use it to understand how key Vedantic concepts are introduced and debated.
6. For Guiding Spiritual Discourse and Teaching:
   • Teachers and gurus require the Kena Upanishad to effectively convey subtle philosophical points through its clear, poetic language and the impactful Yaksha allegory. It provides concrete examples for how to explain abstract concepts.

In summary, the Kena Upanishad is “required” by offering a unique and powerful philosophical methodology: it shows how to ask the right questions about existence, how to engage in deep introspection to find the ultimate Self, how to understand the limitations of conventional knowledge, and how to approach the concept of supreme power with humility and reverence.

Case study on Kena Upanishad?

Courtesy: सत्यः सुखदा Satyaḥ Sukhdā

Case Study: The Kena Upanishad’s Inquiry into the Source of Consciousness and the Limits of Empirical Knowledge – Implications for Modern Science and Leadership

Executive Summary: The Kena Upanishad, a foundational text of Indian philosophy, poses a radical question: “By Whom?” do our minds, senses, and life function? Its answer asserts Brahman as the ultimate, ineffable source – the “Mind of the mind,” beyond the grasp of conventional perception or intellect. This case study delves into the Upanishad’s core philosophical problem, its unique paradoxical teaching on knowing Brahman, and the illustrative allegory of the gods and the Yaksha. We will demonstrate how these ancient insights hold profound implications for contemporary consciousness studies (challenging purely materialist views), and for developing ethical leadership grounded in humility and an understanding of the ultimate source of all capabilities and success.

1. Introduction: The Enigma of the “By Whom?”

• Context: The Kena Upanishad, embedded in the Samaveda, marks a significant shift from ritualistic concerns to profound metaphysical inquiry. Its very name, “Kena” (By Whom?), highlights its central investigative theme.
• The Problem: In an age increasingly reliant on empirical data and quantifiable knowledge, the Kena Upanishad challenges the very assumptions of perception and cognition. It forces an inquiry into the ultimate origin and sustainer of our faculties.
• Thesis: This case study argues that the Kena Upanishad provides a unique and vital philosophical framework for understanding consciousness beyond materialist paradigms and for cultivating leadership rooted in humility and an awareness of underlying universal forces.

2. Core Philosophical Problem: Brahman as the “Unseen Seer” and the Paradox of Unknowability

• Objective: To explain the Kena Upanishad’s radical epistemology concerning Brahman.
• Methodology: Textual analysis of Sections 1 & 2.
• The “Mind of the Mind” Concept (Verses 1.2-1.8):
  • The Upanishad asserts Brahman as the “Ear of the ear,” the “Mind of the mind,” the “Speech of speech,” the “Life of life,” and the “Eye of the eye.”
  • Interpretation: Brahman is not an object that can be perceived or known by the very faculties it enables. It is the ultimate Subject, the pure consciousness that illuminates all perception and cognition.
  • Implication: This challenges the common assumption that all knowledge must be empirical or conceptual. It posits a reality that transcends the subject-object duality inherent in conventional knowing.
• The Paradox of Knowing Brahman (Verses 2.1-2.3):
  • Statement: “It is unknown to those who know it well, and well known to those who know it not.”
  • Interpretation: If one believes they have fully grasped Brahman intellectually, they have only grasped a limited concept, not the infinite reality. True knowledge of Brahman is a direct, intuitive realization (anubhava) that transcends conceptualization and description. It is a state of being, not an object of knowing.
• Significance: This section fundamentally reorients the seeker towards introspective realization rather than external acquisition of knowledge.

3. Illustrative Narrative: The Allegory of the Gods and the Yaksha (Sections 3 & 4)

• Objective: To demonstrate Brahman’s supreme power and illustrate the principle of humility.
• Methodology: Narrative analysis.
• The Story:
  • After a great victory, the gods (Agni, Vayu, Indra – representing natural forces and egoistic power) become proud, attributing success to themselves.
  • Brahman appears as a mysterious Yaksha, challenging their self-perceived might.
  • Agni, the Fire God, fails to burn a simple blade of grass. Vayu, the Wind God, fails to blow it away. Their pride is humbled.
  • Indra, the king of gods, approaches, but the Yaksha vanishes, and the goddess Usha Haimavati (personified knowledge) reveals that the Yaksha was Brahman, and all the gods’ power derived from it.
• Meaning & Application:
  • Source of All Power: All abilities, successes, and even divine powers ultimately originate from and are dependent on Brahman.
  • The Necessity of Humility: It teaches that arrogance and ego blind one to the true source of strength. True wisdom recognizes dependency on the ultimate reality.
  • Role of Knowledge: It highlights that only true knowledge (Usha Haimavati) can reveal Brahman and dispel the illusion of independent power.
• Implication: This allegory provides a compelling, accessible illustration of the abstract philosophical points of the earlier sections, grounding them in a relatable narrative.

4. Philosophical Implications and Enduring Legacy

• Foundation for Advaita Vedanta: The Kena Upanishad’s emphasis on the transcendence and ineffability of Brahman is a crucial pillar for Adi Shankara’s non-dual philosophy, asserting Brahman as attributeless (Nirguna) and beyond all conventional description, yet identical with the Atman.
• Epistemology and Metaphysics: It fundamentally challenges the limitations of empirical epistemology and offers a metaphysical framework where the ultimate reality is the very ground of knowing, rather than an object of knowledge.

5. Contemporary Relevance: Insights for Modern Science and Leadership

• Consciousness Studies (Mumbai, Nala Sopara, and Global Research):
  • The Kena’s inquiry into the “Mind of the mind” offers a vital counterpoint to purely materialist approaches to consciousness. It prompts researchers to consider that consciousness may not be an emergent property of the brain but a fundamental, irreducible reality that enables brain function.
  • It encourages interdisciplinary dialogue between ancient wisdom traditions and modern neuroscience, particularly when grappling with the “hard problem of consciousness.”
• Ethical Leadership & Organizational Dynamics:
  • Humility in Leadership: The Yaksha allegory directly applies to modern leadership. It reminds leaders that skills, intelligence, and success are often derived from broader team efforts, market forces, or foundational principles beyond individual ego. It encourages humility, gratitude, and recognition of interconnectedness.
  • Source of Organizational Power: Companies can gain insights into the true source of their competitive advantage – whether it’s genuine innovation, strong values, or adaptability – rather than just attributing it to individual genius.
  • Responsible Innovation: As AI and advanced technologies develop, the Kena’s inquiry into the source of intelligence can inform ethical discussions about creating conscious or sentient systems.
• Mental Well-being & Stress Management: Understanding that external achievements are transient and that ultimate peace lies in recognizing the unchanging inner Self can reduce attachment to outcomes, leading to greater resilience and mental tranquility.

6. Conclusion: A Timeless Call to Deeper Inquiry The Kena Upanishad, through its penetrating questions and illustrative narrative, remains a profoundly relevant text. It challenges our conventional understanding of knowledge and power, pointing towards Brahman as the ultimate, ungraspable, yet all-enabling reality. Its insights provide invaluable guidance for scientific inquiry into consciousness, for fostering humble and effective leadership in today’s organizations (even in bustling commercial centers like Maharashtra), and for any individual seeking to understand the fundamental “By Whom?” that governs their existence.

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White paper on Kena Upanishad?

White Paper: The Kena Upanishad – Unveiling the Source of Consciousness and Cultivating Humility in Knowledge for the Age of AI and Global Leadership

Executive Summary: The Kena Upanishad, a foundational text of the Samaveda, presents a profound philosophical inquiry into the ultimate source that animates the mind, senses, and life itself. By posing the question “By Whom?” (Kena?), it asserts Brahman as the ineffable “Mind of the mind” and highlights the paradoxical nature of knowing this ultimate reality. This white paper argues that the Kena Upanishad’s insights into the limits of empirical knowledge, the non-dual nature of consciousness, and the necessity of humility in the face of ultimate power offer critical guidance for two pressing contemporary challenges: the evolving scientific understanding of consciousness, particularly in the context of Artificial Intelligence development, and the cultivation of ethical, self-aware leadership in an increasingly complex world. We advocate for integrating these ancient principles into modern research, education, and leadership development frameworks.

1. Introduction: The Unanswered Question – “By Whom?”

• The Modern Predicament: In an era defined by rapid technological advancement and a drive for empirical data, humanity still grapples with fundamental questions about consciousness, the true source of our abilities, and the ethical implications of power.
• The Kena Upanishad’s Radical Inquiry: This ancient text directly confronts these questions, challenging the assumption that our faculties (mind, senses, speech) are self-sufficient. It pushes inquiry beyond the observable, into the realm of the ultimate Subject.
• White Paper’s Purpose: To demonstrate how the Kena Upanishad’s unique philosophical arguments and allegorical teachings provide invaluable insights for contemporary consciousness research, particularly concerning AI, and for fostering a new paradigm of humble and effective global leadership.

2. The Kena Upanishad’s Core Philosophical Contributions

• 2.1. Brahman as the Ultimate Enabler: “Mind of the Mind, Eye of the Eye” (Kena 1.2-1.8)
  • Principle: Brahman is the fundamental reality that empowers all mental and sensory functions. It is not an object that can be perceived or conceived by the very faculties it enables.
  • Implication: This establishes Brahman as the transcendental Subject, the pure consciousness that illuminates all experience, distinct from the instruments of perception.
  • Benefit: Offers a non-materialistic framework for understanding consciousness, suggesting it as primary, not emergent.
• 2.2. The Paradox of Unknowability: “Known to those who know it not, Unknown to those who know it well” (Kena 2.3)
  • Principle: Brahman cannot be fully grasped through conventional intellectual knowledge, empirical observation, or dualistic understanding. Any claim of complete conceptual knowledge falls short of its true nature.
  • Implication: True knowledge of Brahman is a direct, intuitive realization (anubhava) that transcends the subject-object duality.
  • Benefit: Cultivates intellectual humility and guides the seeker towards experiential understanding over mere intellectual assent.
• 2.3. The Allegory of the Gods and the Yaksha: The Source of All Power (Kena 3.1-4.8)
  • Principle: Through the narrative of Brahman (as the Yaksha) humbling the proud gods Agni, Vayu, and Indra, the Upanishad illustrates that all power, success, and ability, even divine, ultimately originate from and depend upon the supreme Brahman.
  • Implication: Arrogance and the belief in independent power blind one to the true source of strength. True wisdom recognizes dependency on the ultimate reality.
  • Benefit: Provides a compelling, accessible lesson in humility, leadership, and the ethical use of power.

3. Current Challenges and the Kena Upanishad’s Relevance

• 3.1. The “Hard Problem” of Consciousness: Neuroscience struggles to explain how physical processes give rise to subjective experience. Existing materialist paradigms often fall short.
• 3.2. Ethical Dilemmas in AI Development: As AI advances, questions about artificial consciousness, ethical decision-making in intelligent systems, and the responsible use of powerful technologies become paramount.
• 3.3. Arrogance of Power in Leadership: Leaders across sectors often attribute success solely to individual effort, leading to hubris, unsustainable practices, and a disconnect from broader systemic dependencies.

4. Strategic Applications of Kena Upanishad Principles

• 4.1. Informing Consciousness Studies and Ethical AI Development:
  • Goal: Integrate Kena Upanishad’s non-dual view of consciousness into interdisciplinary research.
  • Action: Fund research initiatives exploring the Kena’s insights on consciousness as fundamental, not emergent, potentially influencing models for understanding and, eventually, developing artificial intelligence (AI). Foster dialogues between Vedantic scholars and AI ethicists to establish principles of responsible AI development rooted in a holistic understanding of existence.
  • Target Audience: Neuroscientists, AI researchers, philosophers of mind, ethicists.
  • Partners: Global research councils, technology giants, specialized think tanks.
• 4.2. Cultivating Humble and Effective Leadership:
  • Goal: Develop leadership frameworks based on the Kena’s lessons on humility and the true source of power.
  • Action: Design leadership training programs for corporate executives, government officials, and non-profit leaders, focusing on the Yaksha allegory. Teach leaders to acknowledge the interconnectedness of their success, the role of universal principles, and the importance of selfless action and stewardship over ego-driven accumulation.
  • Target Audience: Corporate boards, government training academies, NGOs.
  • Partners: Business schools, HR consulting firms, public administration institutes (e.g., in Maharashtra’s administrative services).
• 4.3. Enhancing Educational Curricula on Knowledge and Wisdom:
  • Goal: Promote a deeper understanding of epistemological diversity and the limits of conventional knowledge.
  • Action: Develop university courses and public education modules that specifically analyze the Kena Upanishad’s paradox of knowing Brahman, encouraging critical thinking about the nature of truth and different ways of knowing (intellectual vs. intuitive).
  • Target Audience: University students (philosophy, science, humanities), educators, general public.
  • Partners: Educational ministries, university curriculum development boards, online learning platforms.
• 4.4. Preserving and Digitizing Traditional Scholarly Interpretations:
  • Goal: Ensure continued access to and understanding of the nuanced traditional commentaries.
  • Action: Support the digitization of rare manuscripts and traditional commentaries on the Kena Upanishad (e.g., from institutions like BORI, Pune), making them globally accessible to researchers. Fund Pathashalas in Nala Sopara and other parts of Maharashtra to nurture the next generation of traditional Vedic scholars.
  • Target Audience: Traditional scholars, Indologists, Sanskritists.
  • Partners: Cultural heritage foundations, academic libraries, government archives.

5. Conclusion: The Enduring Resonance of “By Whom?” The Kena Upanishad, through its concise yet profoundly challenging inquiry, provides invaluable wisdom for navigating the complexities of the 21st century. Its insights into the nature of consciousness, the humility required to truly understand, and the ultimate source of all power offer a vital philosophical compass. By strategically integrating these ancient principles into contemporary scientific research, educational frameworks, and leadership development, we can foster a more self-aware, ethical, and sustainable future, addressing fundamental questions that resonate as strongly today as they did millennia ago.

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Industrial Application of Kena Upanishad?

The Kena Upanishad, with its unique inquiry into the fundamental source of consciousness, power, and perception, offers industrial applications not in the direct manufacturing of goods, but in shaping the intellectual, ethical, and strategic foundations of various knowledge-intensive industries. It provides profound frameworks for understanding underlying forces, cultivating humility, and navigating the limits of conventional knowledge.

Here’s how the Kena Upanishad’s principles can be “required” and applied in specific industries and functions as of June 20, 2025, from Nala Sopara, Maharashtra, and globally:

1. Advanced Research & Development (R&D) and Innovation:
   • Kena Principle: Brahman as the “Eye of the eye,” “Mind of the mind”—the ultimate source that enables all faculties, beyond direct perception.
   • Application: In R&D departments across pharmaceuticals, technology, material science, and clean energy, the Upanishad encourages researchers to:
     • Go Beyond the Obvious: Not just analyze surface data, but inquire into the deeper, often unseen, principles governing phenomena. This can foster breakthrough innovation by questioning fundamental assumptions.
     • Embrace Paradox: Recognize that the most profound insights might lie beyond current empirical limits, fostering an open-minded approach to complex problems that defy conventional solutions. This is crucial for labs in Mumbai and Pune working on advanced tech.
     • Cultivate Intuitive Insight: While rigorous scientific method is essential, acknowledging a “Mind of the mind” can subtly influence an environment that values intuition and creative leaps derived from deep contemplation, not just brute-force data analysis.
2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Consciousness Technology Development:
   • Kena Principle: The inquiry into “By Whom?” intelligence operates; the paradox of knowing Brahman (it enables knowledge but is not an object of knowledge).
   • Application: For companies developing AI algorithms, machine learning systems, and consciousness-mimicking technologies, the Kena Upanishad is “required” for:
     • Ethical AI Architecture: Informing the philosophical basis of AI ethics. If Brahman is the ultimate source of consciousness, it implies a fundamental reverence for sentience and life, influencing how AI is designed to interact with and impact human experience.
     • Understanding AI’s Limits: Recognizing that even the most advanced AI, while mimicking human intelligence, may not possess true consciousness or inherent “knowing” as described by Brahman. This helps set realistic expectations and ethical boundaries for AI’s capabilities.
     • “Explainable AI” Philosophy: The quest to understand “by whom” guides us to build AI systems whose decision-making processes are transparent and accountable, acknowledging that even our most complex creations derive their functionality from underlying human principles and ultimately, the universal consciousness.
3. Strategic Consulting & Complex Problem Solving:
   • Kena Principle: The lesson from the Yaksha allegory—even powerful gods (Agni, Vayu) fail without understanding the ultimate source of their power (Brahman). The concept that the ultimate truth is “unknown to those who know it well.”
   • Application: For management consulting firms, geopolitical strategists, and urban planners (e.g., advising smart city initiatives in Maharashtra), the Upanishad guides:
     • Humility in Expertise: Consultants dealing with complex, intractable problems (e.g., climate change, social inequality) are reminded that purely data-driven, ego-centric solutions can fail if they ignore deeper, unseen systemic forces or human elements.
     • Root Cause Analysis Beyond the Obvious: Encouraging inquiry into the underlying “source” of challenges, rather than just treating symptoms or relying on superficial data analysis.
     • Avoiding Hubris in Strategy: The Yaksha story warns against overconfidence in one’s own power or knowledge, promoting a more adaptable, collaborative, and humble approach to strategic planning, recognizing that success isn’t solely due to one’s own brilliance.
4. Leadership Development & Organizational Culture:
   • Kena Principle: The Yaksha allegory directly applies to the nature of power and humility in leadership.
   • Application: In corporate training, executive coaching, and organizational development, the Kena Upanishad is “required” to:
     • Cultivate Humble Leadership: Leaders learn that their capabilities and the organization’s success depend on many factors beyond their individual effort—market forces, team contributions, underlying principles. This fosters humility, reduces ego, and promotes collaboration.
     • Identify the “True Source” of Success: Encouraging leaders to understand and nurture the fundamental elements that truly drive their team or company’s effectiveness, rather than getting caught up in superficial metrics or external validation.
     • Foster a Culture of Learning & Inquiry: The Upanishad’s questioning spirit can inspire organizations to become learning entities, constantly asking “By Whom?” or “By What?” are we truly driven, leading to continuous improvement and adaptability.
5. Experiential Learning & Transformational Education (Ed-Tech/Wellness):
   • Kena Principle: The paradox of knowing Brahman and the shift from intellectual knowledge to intuitive realization.
   • Application: In experiential learning platforms, spiritual retreats, and mindfulness programs, the Upanishad is “required” to:
     • Design Intuition-Focused Programs: Create learning experiences that go beyond rote memorization or logical analysis, encouraging direct insight and personal realization.
     • Teach the Limits of Conventional Knowing: Help participants understand that true wisdom extends beyond data points or theoretical models, guiding them towards a deeper, more integrated understanding of self and reality.

In essence, the “industrial application” of the Kena Upanishad lies in its capacity to provide profound philosophical and ethical insights that enhance strategic thinking, guide responsible innovation, foster humble leadership, and deepen the understanding of consciousness within various knowledge-intensive and human-centric industries.

References

[edit]

1. ^ Johnston, Charles (1920-1931), The Mukhya Upanishads, Kshetra Books, ISBN 9781495946530 (Reprinted in 2014)
2. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g h i} Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 207-213
3. ^ Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920-1931), The Mukhya Upanishads, Kshetra Books, ISBN 978-1495946530 (Reprinted in 2014), Archive of Kena Upanishad
4. ^ Kena Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
5. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 209-210
6. ^ Kena Upanishad Verse 1, Wikisource
7. ^ The slight re-ordering of words here is per Max Muller, see Max Muller, Talavakara Upanishad, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, page 147
8. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kena Upanishad G Prasadji (Translator), Delhi, pages 1-34
9. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1
10. ^ Patrick Olivelle (1996), The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text & Translation, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, Introduction Chapter
11. ^ RD Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy, Chapter 1, pages 13-18
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13. ^ M Winternitz (2010), History of Indian Literature, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643
14. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Max Muller, Talavakara Upanishad, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, pages LXXXIX-XCI
15. ^ First published in Basel, Switzerland in 1878
16. ^ Hanns Oertel, Extracts from the Jāiminīya-Brāhmaṇa and Upanishad-Brāhmaṇa, Parallel to Passages of the Çatapatha-Brāhmaṇa and Chāndogya-Upanishad, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 15 (1893), pages 233-251
17. ^ Eduard Roer, Kena Upanishad^{[permanent dead link]}, in A Collection of Oriental Works, Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 77
18. ^ Jump up to:^a b A. S. Woodburne, The Idea of God in Hinduism, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Jan., 1925), pages 57-58
19. ^ Kena Upanishad with Shankara Bhasya and Anandagiri Tika, Anandashrama Sanskruta Grantavali, New Delhi (in Sanskrit), pages 1-94
20. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 210-211
21. ^ Robert Hume, Kena Upanishad, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 337
22. ^ Max Muller, Talavakara Upanishad, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, pages 148-149
23. ^ Charles Johnston, “By Whom” – Kena Upanishad, Theosophical Quarterly 1921-1922, pages 111-115 and 225-232, Kshetra Books, ISBN 9781495946530 (Reprinted in 2014)
24. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 208
25. ^ Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920-1931), The Mukhya Upanishads, Kshetra Books, ISBN 978-1495946530 (Reprinted in 2014), Archive of Kena Upanishad – Part 3, page 230
26. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 211-213
27. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Charles Johnston, Kena Upanishad in The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920-1931), The Mukhya Upanishads, Kshetra Books, ISBN 978-1495946530 (Reprinted in 2014), Archive of Kena Upanishad – Part 3 as published in Theosophical Quarterly, pages 229-232
28. ^ Kena Upanishad Mantra 8, G Prasadji (Translator)
29. ^ Kena Upanishad Mantra 12, G Prasadji (Translator), pages 23-26
30. ^ S Sharvananda, Kena Upanishad, Upanishad Series No. 2, Madras (1920), pages 2, 31-37
31. ^ Kena Upanishad Mantra 6, G Prasadji (Translator), pages 32-33
32. ^ Meditation, Penance, Inner heat, See: WO Kaelber (1976), “Tapas”, Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda, History of Religions, 15(4), pages 343-386
33. ^ Self-restraint, see: M Heim (2005), Differentiations in Hindu ethics, in William Schweiker (Editor), The Blackwell companion to religious ethics, ISBN 0631216340, pages 341-354
34. ^ Kena Upanishad with Shankara Bhasya and Anandagiri Tika Anandashrama Sanskruta Grantavali, New Delhi (in Sanskrit), pages 1-94
35. ^ Isa Kena and Mundaka Upanishads with Shankara’s commentary SS Sastri (Translator), pages 36-89
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39. ^ Krishna Mohan Shrimali (2011), Knowledge Transmission: Processes, Contents and Apparatus in Early India, Social Scientist, Vol. 39, No. 5/6 (May–June 2011), pages 3-22
40. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fred Dallmayr (1997), International Vedānta Congress in Madras: A Report, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 1997), pages 255-258
41. ^ Kena Upanishad Prelude in Sanskrit Wikisource
42. ^ Guy Rickards (2002), Tempo New Series, Cambridge University Press, No. 222 (Oct., 2002), page 53
43. ^ Jump up to:^a b Varenne 1981, p. 197-204.
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45. ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 217-219
46. ^ Prāṇāgnihotra is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, page 567
47. ^ Atharvasiras is missing in some anthologies, included by Paul Deussen (2010 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, page 568
48. ^ Glucklich 2008, p. 70.
49. ^ Fields 2001, p. 26.
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51. ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 114-115 with preface and footnotes;
    Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 3.17, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 212-213
52. ^ Henk Bodewitz (1999), Hindu Ahimsa, in Violence Denied (Editors: Jan E. M. Houben, et al.), Brill, ISBN 978-9004113442, page 40
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56. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Mahadevan 1956, p. 57.
57. ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 30-42;
58. ^ Jump up to:^a b Max Müller (1962), Manduka Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Oxford University Press, Reprinted as ISBN 978-0486209937, pages 30-33
59. ^ Eduard Roer, Mundaka Upanishad^{[permanent dead link]} Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, pages 153-154
60. ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 331-333
61. ^ “laid those fires” is a phrase in Vedic literature that implies yajna and related ancient religious rituals; see Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation^{[permanent dead link]} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, Bibliotheca Indica, First Prapathaka
62. ^ Max Müller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages 287-288
63. ^ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 412–414
64. ^ Hume, Robert Ernest (1921), The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 428–429
65. ^ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 350-351
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69. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Jayatilleke 1963, p. 32.
70. ^ Jump up to:^a b Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 39.
71. ^ Mackenzie 2012.
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73. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Black.
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76. ^ Lochtefeld 2002, p. 122.
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78. ^ Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads at Google Books, Dover Publications, pages 86-111, 182-212
79. ^ Nakamura (1990), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy, p.500. Motilall Banarsidas
80. ^ Mahadevan 1956, pp. 62–63.
81. ^ Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 161, at Google Books, pages 161, 240-254
82. ^ Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791436844, page 376
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85. ^ Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48
86. ^ Teun Goudriaan (2008), Maya: Divine And Human, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120823891, pages 1-17
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88. ^ Adi Shankara, Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad at Google Books, SS Sastri (Translator), Harvard University Archives, pages 191-198
89. ^ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 272.
90. ^ Raju 1992, p. 176-177.
91. ^ Jump up to:^a b Raju 1992, p. 177.
92. ^ Ranade 1926, pp. 179–182.
93. ^ Mahadevan 1956, p. 63.
94. ^ Jump up to:^a b Encyclopædia Britannica.
95. ^ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 273.
96. ^ Jump up to:^a b King 1999, p. 221.
97. ^ Jump up to:^a b Nakamura 2004, p. 31.
98. ^ King 1999, p. 219.
99. ^ Collins 2000, p. 195.
100. ^ Radhakrishnan 1956, p. 284.
101. ^ John Koller (2012), Shankara in Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415782944, pages 99-108
102. ^ Edward Roer (translator), Shankara’s Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 3-4; Quote – “(…) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect.”
103. ^ Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara’s Introduction, p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at page 3, OCLC 19373677
104. ^ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;
     Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: “Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.”;
     Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara’s Introduction, p. 2, at Google Books, pages 2-4
     Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana? Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Philosophy Now;
     John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: “The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism”.
105. ^ Panikkar 2001, p. 669.
106. ^ Panikkar 2001, pp. 725–727.
107. ^ Panikkar 2001, pp. 747–750.
108. ^ Panikkar 2001, pp. 697–701.
109. ^ Nicholson, Andrew J. (1 August 2007). “Reconciling dualism and non-dualism: three arguments in Vijñānabhikṣu’s Bhedābheda Vedānta”. Journal of Indian Philosophy. 35 (4): 377–378. doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9016-6. ISSN 1573-0395.
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111. ^ Jump up to:^a b Chari 1956, p. 305.
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117. ^ Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415223645, pages 517-518
118. ^ Sharma, Chandradhar (1994). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 373–374. ISBN 81-208-0365-5.
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120. ^ Jon Paul Sydnor (2012). Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology. Casemate. pp. 20–22 with footnote 32. ISBN 978-0227680247. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
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122. ^ Raghavendrachar 1956, p. 322.
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